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About International Trade

Lexis®+ International Trade is an online practical and comprehensive guidance product for contentious and non-contentious lawyers providing advice to and supporting governments, businesses and organisations that engage in international trade.

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As the UK pursues an independent trade policy and businesses seek to exploit these opportunities, stay ahead of the curve and guide your clients through this vast regulatory landscape.

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An online practical and comprehensive guidance product for contentious and non-contentious lawyers giving advice to and supporting governments, businesses and organisations that engage.

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Jurisdictional guides relevant to international trade, giving lawyers an overview of applicable laws at national level which impacts on international trade.

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Covering all WTO agreements, WTO disputes, trade remedies, free trade agreements, the UK-EU TCA as well as guidance on a range of topics related to international trade such as sanctions and export controls.

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Associated legal terms

Conditions of carriage

Conditions of carriage are the standard contractual terms on which a carrier transports passengers, baggage or goods, typically by air, sea, rail, road or multimodal transport. They govern issues such as the carrier’s duties, exclusions and limitations of liability, delay, cancellation, loss or damage, passenger conduct, documentation requirements and claims procedures.

In UK and Irish practice, conditions of carriage are usually incorporated by reference into tickets, consignment notes or online booking terms, and operate alongside mandatory regimes such as the Montreal Convention (air), CMR (road), Hague‑Visby Rules (sea), rail regulations and consumer protection legislation. They are not generally defined in statute but are a widely used contractual and commercial expression, shaped by case law on incorporation, unfair terms and limitation clauses.

Courts in England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Ireland broadly treat conditions of carriage consistently, focussing on effective notice, contractual interpretation, statutory overrides and public policy controls (for example unfair terms in consumer contracts). For practitioners, analysing applicable conditions of carriage is essential in advising on risk allocation, drafting transport contracts, litigating cargo and passenger claims, and assessing limitation and jurisdiction clauses.

Free on board (FOB)

Free on board (FOB) is a commonly used delivery term in sale of goods and international trade contracts indicating the point at which the seller’s obligations to deliver, and the risk of loss or damage to the goods, pass from seller to buyer. In practice, FOB usually means the seller must place the goods on board the vessel nominated by the buyer at the named port of shipment, within the agreed time and in the agreed manner, and bear all costs and risks up to that point.

FOB is not a statutory term in the Sale of Goods Acts in the UK or Ireland, but has been extensively interpreted by case law and is also reflected in Incoterms rules published by the ICC (e.g. FOB Incoterms 2020). Courts in England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Ireland treat FOB clauses similarly, focussing on allocation of risk, cost, and responsibility for insurance, export formalities and documentation (such as bills of lading).

Lawyers should identify whether the contract adopts FOB as an Incoterm, a customised trade term, or as construed under common law, as this affects when property and risk pass, and who bears duties regarding carriage and insurance.

Notary public

A notary public is a qualified legal professional who authenticates documents and signatures for use in foreign or cross-border transactions, and certifies facts in a form relied on by courts, registries, and public authorities. In England and Wales and in Ireland, notaries are usually solicitors (or similarly qualified lawyers) with additional notarial training and appointment; in Scotland and Northern Ireland, notaries public are typically practising solicitors with restricted notarial functions unless specially authorised.

The role is governed mainly by statute and professional regulation (for example, the Public Notaries Acts and rules made by notarial regulators), rather than a single exhaustive legislative definition. Core functions include: attesting signatures; certifying copies; taking affidavits, oaths and affirmations; preparing and notarising powers of attorney; and issuing notarial acts and authentications for use abroad, often followed by legalisation (apostille or consular).

Notaries public are impartial officers of the law, owing duties of independence, verification and record-keeping. Their acts carry evidential weight domestically and internationally, making them central to cross-border commerce, property transactions, banking, shipping and private client matters involving foreign jurisdictions.
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