Overview This Practice Note is part of our LLB Contract Law series written specifically for law students. It explains the two elements the law looks for in deciding whether the parties have reached an agreement capable of binding them: an offer, and an acceptance which matches it. It begins with what the law recognises as an offer, and with the objective approach the courts take to that question, confirmed in Storer v Manchester City Council [1974] 1 WLR 1403. The Practice Note then distinguishes the two types of offer. Bilateral offers, made to a specific person or group, are the ordinary case. Unilateral offers, made to the world at large and accepted by performance, are the exception, the leading authority on this being Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co [1893] 1 QB 256. The Practice Note then turns to the distinction which generates most of the difficulty in practice: the difference between an offer, which is capable of acceptance, and an invitation to treat, which is not. That distinction is worked through the settings in which it

Introduction This Practice Note is part of our student series, aimed specifically at students undertaking their LLB. It examines the development and modern operation of the doctrine of privity. It begins by outlining the orthodox common law position and its conceptual foundations, including the link between privity and consideration. The Practice Note examines the development, operation and reform of the doctrine. It begins by outlining the orthodox common law position and its conceptual foundations, including the relationship between privity and consideration. It then analyses the principal judicial responses to the doctrine’s rigidity, including collateral contracts, agency, trusts of a promise, restrictive covenants and recovery of third-party loss, with reference to leading cases. The Practice Note then analyses the statutory reform introduced by the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, examining the structure and interpretation of sections 1(1)–1(6), including the identification requirement under section 1(3), and key authorities. It focuses on how third parties may now enforce contractual terms where clearly identified, and how the Act preserves certainty and party autonomy. A consolidated case table

Introduction This Practice Note is part of our student series, aimed specifically at students undertaking their LLB. It examines the equitable doctrine of promissory estoppel: its origins, requirements, and scope. To help explain the concept of promissory estoppel, this Practice Note begins by returning to some of the content covered in Practice Note: Student series: Consideration. It emphasises that the law generally does not enforce gratuitous promises. A promise is enforceable only where the promisee has given consideration for it, and that requirement causes particular difficulty where parties agree to vary an existing contract in a way that benefits only one of them. The Practice Note sets out the classic definition of consideration in Currie v Misa (1875) LR 10 Ex 153, the treatment of practical benefit in Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls (Contractors) Ltd [1991] 1 QB 1, and the rule on part-payment of a debt established in Pinnel’s Case (1602) 5 Co Rep 117a, affirmed by the House of Lords in Foakes v Beer (1884) 9 App Cas 605 and applied by the Court of

This Practice Note is part of our LLB Contract Law series written specifically for law students. It provides a structured analysis of statutory implied terms under the Sale of Goods Act 1979 (SGA 1979). It explains the rationale and operation of statutory implication in business-to-business contracts, with detailed treatment of the key implied terms relating to title (SGA 1979, s 12), description (SGA 1979, s 13), satisfactory quality (SGA 1979, s 14(2)), fitness for purpose (SGA 1979, s 14(3)) and sale by sample (SGA 1979, s 15). This Practice Note integrates leading case law to illustrate how these provisions operate in practice, explores limitations and exceptions (including SGA 1979, s 15A and reliance requirements) and situates SGA 1979 within its broader policy, academic and comparative context, with reference to the Consumer Rights Act 2015 (CRA 2015) and civil law approaches. The nature and function of statutory implied terms In English contract law, terms may be express or implied.   While express terms reflect the parties’ actual agreement, implied terms are inserted by law to give effect to presumed intentions,

Overview This Practice Note is part of our LLB Contract Law series written specifically for law students. It covers the three ways in which the law classifies a term and then considers what happens when the courts approach implying a term into the contract. The first half deals with what happens after a statement has been established as a term of the contract. Not every term carries the same weight, and the category into which a term falls decides what the innocent party can do when it is broken. The Practice Note works through each category in turn. Conditions are the vital terms: breach entitles the innocent party to terminate the contract and to claim damages, as in Poussard v Spiers and Pond (1876) 1 QBD 410 and Bunge Corporation v Tradax Export SA [1981] 1 WLR 711. Warranties are secondary: breach results in damages only and the contract survives, as in Bettini v Gye (1876) 1 QBD 183. Innominate terms sit between the two, their consequences depending on the seriousness of the

Overview This Practice Note is part of our LLB Contract Law series written specifically for law students. It answers a single question: what is actually in the contract? Before a court can decide what a promise is worth, it must decide whether the promise is part of the bargain at all. That question divides into two, and this Practice Note takes each in turn. The first is whether a statement made before the contract is a term or a mere representation. A term binds; a representation does not, and a false representation gives rise to a claim in misrepresentation rather than breach. The courts weigh a familiar group of factors, illustrated by Bannerman v White (1861) 10 CBNS 844, Oscar Chess Ltd v Williams [1957] 1 WLR 370 and Dick Bentley Productions Ltd v Harold Smith (Motors) Ltd [1965] 1 WLR 623. For more information on misrepresentation, see Practice Note: Student series: Misrepresentation The second is incorporation: how a set of written conditions becomes part of an agreement. The Practice

This is an example of a guide which can be sent to clients. It is intended to provide general information about the status of tenancies granted to students following changes made by the Renters’ Rights Act 2025. This guide explains how the Renters’ Rights Act 2025 affects student accommodation in England. It covers homes rented from private landlords, university-provided accommodation and purpose-built student accommodation. From 1 May 2026, most existing assured and assured shorthold tenancies in England became assured periodic tenancies. The rules for student accommodation depend on who provides it and, for some purpose-built student accommodation, whether the provider belongs to an approved code of practice. Does the Renters’ Rights Act 2025 apply to students? Yes. In many cases the Act applies to student accommodation. The Act will generally apply where a student rents from a private landlord under an assured tenancy. This includes many privately rented student houses, flats and shared homes. However, not all student accommodation is treated in the same way. Some purpose-built student accommodation and university accommodation will be let

STOP PRESS: This Practice Note is being updated for Statement of changes in Immigration Rules HC 584, issued on 3 September 2026. For more details, see: LNB News 03/09/2026 37. This Practice Note outlines the points-based and non points-based eligibility requirements for entry clearance and permission to stay applications under the Student route. This Practice Note does not deal with Students applying to undertake a post as a Student Union sabbatical officer. See also Practice Note: Student: period and conditions of permission for information on the period and conditions of permission associated with entry clearance and permission to stay for persons in the Student route, including conditions relating to work and study that have been imposed in the Student and the predecessor Tier 4 (General) categories. Key resources at a glance Resource type Link Immigration Rules Immigration Rules, Introduction, para 6.2(b) ‘Student’ Immigration Rules, Appendix Student Immigration Rules, Appendix ATAS Immigration Rules, Appendix English Language Immigration Rules, Appendix Finance Home Office guidance Student and Child Student caseworker guidance Student

This Practice Note provides information on the periods and conditions of permission associated with entry clearance and permission to stay for persons in the Student route, including those granted Student permission under the Doctorate Extension Scheme. New applications to the Doctorate Extension Scheme closed on 1 July 2021. Student union sabbatical officers are excluded from the scope of this Practice Note. See also Practice Note: Student: eligibility, which outlines the points-based and non points-based eligibility requirements for entry clearance and permission to stay applications under the Student route. Grant of permission Student permission is granted for the length of the course, plus variable periods before and after the course. The table below sets out the periods of permission granted before the course start date and after the course end date as set out on the student’s confirmation of acceptance for studies (CAS). Table of permission granted in addition to the duration of the course Type/length of course Period to be granted before the course starts Period to be granted

An agreement to be used when a company is making available premises and facilities to a producer.

The Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health has published a study led by researchers at University College London (UCL) examining the effects of the extension of the ‘right to request’ flexible working on uptake of flexible working and well-being. Drawing on data from over 15,000 employees in the UK Household Longitudinal Study (2010–2020), the study found that the extension has led to increased uptake of reduced hours arrangements among women, with the effect strengthening over time. This was linked to improvements in psychological well-being and life satisfaction for women. No comparable changes were observed for men and use of flexitime and teleworking remained largely unchanged across both groups. The study notes that patterns of uptake may reflect existing workplace norms and gender roles.

A study conducted by consultancy EY for the European Commission found more than half of medical device companies in the EU have reduced their product portfolios to cope with the complexities of the EU Medical Device Regulation (MDR) and EU In Vitro Diagnostic Regulation (IVDR), while 17% have stopped producing devices entirely due to high certification costs and administrative burden. the study conducted between 2023 and 2024 was commissioned to identify the key benefits and challenges associated with the regulatory governance framework. The findings indicated that larger firms are more likely to have reduced their product offerings. Nearly seven out of ten (69%) of the surveyed large companies reported that they had cut their existing device portfolios in the EU market due to new regulations. In contrast, only 13% of the small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that were consulted reported a reduction in their portfolios. Stakeholders also expressed skepticism about the adaptability of the regulations to foster technological innovation in the sector. These criticisms of the MDR and IVDR follow the Commission's proposal on 16 December 2025 for a new regulation to amend and streamline the legislation governing medical devices.