Rely on the most comprehensive, up-to-date legal content designed and curated by lawyers for lawyers
Work faster and smarter to improve your drafting productivity without increasing risk
Accelerate the creation and use of high quality and trusted legal documents and forms
Streamline how you manage your legal business with proven tools and processes
Manage risk and compliance in your organisation to reduce your risk profile
Stay up to date and informed with insights from our trusted experts, news and information sources
Access the best content in the industry, effortlessly — confident that your news is trustworthy and up to date.
Find up-to-date guidance on points of law and then easily pull up sources to support your advice with Lexis PSL
Check out our straightforward definitions of common legal terms.
Our trusted tax intelligence solutions, highly-regarded exam training and education materials help guide and tutor Tax professionals
Access our unrivalled global news content, business information and analytics solutions
Insurance, risk and compliance intelligence using big data, proprietary linking and advanced analytics.
A leading provider of software platforms for professional services firms
In-depth analysis, commentary and practical information to help you protect your business
LexisNexis Blogs shed light on topics affecting the legal profession and the issues you're facing
Legal professionals trust us to help navigate change. Find out how we help ensure they exceed expectations
Lex Chat is a LexisNexis current affairs podcast sharing insights on topics for the legal profession
Discuss the latest legal developments, ask questions, and share best practice with other LexisPSL subscribers
Natasha Slabas highlights deficiencies in the law relating to surrogacy and the need for reform.
The law in England and Wales remains without a robust framework of legislation to enforce surrogacy arrangements. While the Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985 (SAA 1985), and other legislation, governs surrogacy arrangements, it remains that a surrogacy agreement is not enforceable by or against any of the persons making it. The consequence is that childless couples may decide to venture outside of the UK in order to enter into a surrogacy arrangement. Their escape from the inauspicious English system is short lived however because steps then need to be taken on returning with the child to secure their legal parental status in England and Wales, usually by an application for a parental order. Those returning with a child after an overseas surrogacy arrangement may not know of, let alone understand, the procedure for ensuring that their parental status is recognised in the UK.
Case law demonstrates that judges are prepared to manoeuvre the law wherever possible to prevent parentless children from evolving, but cases may pass through the net with consequences that are less than preferable. A review and amendment of the relevant legislation is necessary and overdue.
Background
The Warnock Report (1984) was the report of the Committee of Enquiry into Human Fertilisation and Embryology, chaired by Mary Warnock and collated by several professionals. It made clear that a surrogacy agreement is an illegal contract and not enforceable in the courts. The report also recognised however that it is inevitable that private surrogacy arrangements will take place, regardless of the lack of enforceability.
Current legislation
The legislation in the UK governing surrogacy arrangements is wide-ranging, and adds to the complexity in deciphering the rules and restrictions. The key legislation is:
Terminology
There are two types of surrogacy arrangements:
The surrogate mother is treated as the child’s biological mother irrespective of whether her gametes or donor gametes are used to facilitate the pregnancy. The surrogate mother will acquire parental responsibility automatically and, if married at the time of the birth of the child, her husband will also.
The only available methods to for the commissioning parents to acquire legal parenthood are via an application for a parental order (per HFEA 2008, s 54) or an application for an adoption order (under ACA 2002) no earlier than six weeks after the birth (as the consent of the surrogate is only valid after six weeks) and no later than six months from the child’s date of birth. The waiting time to apply for legal status of at least six weeks after birth arises directly from the notion held at the time of the Warnock Report that a court of law should not have the ability to remove a child against the carrier’s will, should she change her mind.
There are additional provisions as to remuneration for the carrier mother but the commissioning couple should only cover reasonable expenses. Commercial arrangements are prohibited (SAA 1985, s 2(1)). But how would a larger sum of money to remunerate a carrier be harmful? It could provide for first class medical treatment, should something go wrong during the pregnancy, or symbolise a gesture of gratitude. An application for a parental order cannot be made by one person, it must be made by a married couple, civil partners or by two people in a relationship of enduring nature (HFEA 2008, s 54(2)). This begs the question of why the circumstances leading to parenthood should dictate who can or cannot be a single parent?
The commissioning couple is not legally recognised as the child’s parents throughout the pregnancy and not before six weeks after birth, despite them entering into a surrogacy arrangement with the full intention of the child being their responsibility for its age of minority. Equally, a carrier and her husband (where applicable) do not seek parental status yet they are legally responsible for the child. The law thus grants responsibilities of the contrary intention to those involved.
There are additional provisions as to child maintenance, inheritance and child arrangements that are factored in the usual way regarding a legal parent. In my view, as the law currently stands, the legal status provisions are inadequate for both the commissioning couple and the carrier.
Recent developments
Some recent case law dealing with surrogacy and parental orders includes:
Conclusion
Judges will manoeuvre the law concerning surrogacy where the long term welfare of a child is in jeopardy, but commissioning couples who go abroad to fulfil their desire of becoming a parent are still essentially in no man’s land. The foreign jurisdiction may provide for unknown, undesired and uncontrolled mechanisms for surrogacy, but this is not a deterrent to some.
There are surrogacy agencies in operation in the UK whose attempts to manage the pitfalls and minimise the risks to all concerned in this type of arrangement are commendable. But the law is still inadequate and needs to change.
Natasha Slabas is a solicitor at Philcox Gray and represented the father in D (a Child: Habitual Residence: Consent and Acquiescence) [2015] EWHC 1562 (Fam).
The views expressed by our Legal Analysis interviewees are not necessarily those of the proprietor.
Free trials are only available to individuals based in the UK
* denotes a required field
0330 161 1234